2.5 Peano’s existence theorem
Continuity alone guarantees existence, though not uniqueness. The proof needs compactness in place of contraction.
Theorem 2.5.1 (Arzelà–Ascoli). A sequence of functions on a compact interval \(J\) that is uniformly bounded and equicontinuous (for every \(\varepsilon > 0\) there is \(\delta > 0\) with \(\|\phi _n(t) - \phi _n(s)\| < \varepsilon \) whenever \(|t - s| < \delta \), for all \(n\)) has a uniformly convergent subsequence.
We take this standard result of analysis as known.
Theorem 2.5.2 (Peano). If \(f\) is continuous on \(R\), the initial value problem has at least one solution on \(J = [t_0 - \alpha , t_0 + \alpha ]\).
Proof. Take \(t \geq t_0\). For each \(n\), divide \([t_0, t_0 + \alpha ]\) into \(n\) steps of length \(h = \alpha /n\) at \(t_j = t_0 + jh\), and define the Euler polygon \(\phi _n\) by \(\phi _n(t_0) = x_0\) and \[ \phi _n(t) = \phi _n(t_j) + (t - t_j)f\bigl (t_j, \phi _n(t_j)\bigr ), \qquad t_j \leq t \leq t_{j+1} . \] By induction, as in the cone argument, each \(\phi _n\) stays in \(\bar B(x_0, b)\), and it is piecewise linear with slopes of norm at most \(M\), so \(\|\phi _n(t) - \phi _n(s)\| \leq M|t - s|\): the sequence is uniformly bounded and equicontinuous. Writing \(t_{[s]}\) for the grid point at or just below \(s\), \[ \phi _n(t) = x_0 + \int _{t_0}^tf\bigl (t_{[s]}, \phi _n(t_{[s]})\bigr )\,ds = x_0 + \int _{t_0}^tf\bigl (s, \phi _n(s)\bigr )\,ds + \int _{t_0}^t\delta _n(s)\,ds , \] where \(\delta _n(s) = f(t_{[s]}, \phi _n(t_{[s]})) - f(s, \phi _n(s))\). The two points at which \(f\) is evaluated are within \(h\) in \(t\) and \(Mh\) in \(x\), and \(f\) is uniformly continuous on the compact set \(R\), so \(\|\delta _n\|_\infty \to 0\). By Theorem 2.5.1 a subsequence \(\phi _{n_k}\) converges uniformly to a continuous \(\phi \); then \(f(s, \phi _{n_k}(s)) \to f(s, \phi (s))\) uniformly, again by uniform continuity, and passing to the limit gives \(\phi (t) = x_0 + \int _{t_0}^tf(s, \phi (s))\,ds\). By Lemma 2.1.1, \(\phi \) is a solution. □
The proof constructs Euler’s method and shows that a subsequence of its approximations converges. Without uniqueness, different subsequences may converge to different solutions; with uniqueness, the whole sequence converges, and Euler’s method is a convergent numerical scheme. Between Peano and Picard lie weaker conditions for uniqueness. Osgood’s (1898) criterion, \(\|f(t, x) - f(t, y)\| \leq \omega (\|x - y\|)\) with \(\int _0\frac {dr}{\omega (r)} = \infty \), covers \(\omega (r) = r\log (1/r)\), which is not Lipschitz; the failing example \(3x^{2/3}\) has \(\omega (r) = 3r^{2/3}\), for which the integral converges.
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